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Selected Publications (by year)

Books:

Kanfer, R., Ackerman, P. L., & Cudeck, R. (Eds.)(1989). Abilities, motivation, and methodology: The Minnesota Symposium on Learning and Individual Differences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Lord, R., Klimoski, R., & Kanfer, R. (Eds.) (2002). Emotions in the workplace: Understanding the structure and role of emotions in organizational behavior. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass.

Ackerman, P. L., Kyllonen, P.C., & Roberts, R.D. (Eds.) (1999). Learning and Individual Differences: Process, Trait, and Content Determinants. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association. Ackerman, P. L., Sternberg, R. J., & Glaser, R. (Eds.) (1989). Learning and individual differences: Advances in theory and research. New York: W. H. Freeman.

Kanfer, R., Chen, G., & Pritchard, R. (Eds.) (2008). Work Motivation: Past, Present, and Future. New York: Routledge Academic.

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In Press

Kanfer, R., Wolf, M. B., Kantrowitz, T. M., & Ackerman, P. L. (In Press). Ability and trait complex predictors of academic and job performance: A person-situation approach. Applied Psychology: An International Review.

Chen, G., Kanfer, R., DeShon, R. P., Mathieu, J. E., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (In Press). The motivating potential of teams: Test and extension of Chen & Kanfer's (2006) cross-level model of motivation in teams. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.

Ackerman, P. L., & Kanfer, R. (in press). Test length and cognitive fatigue: an empirical examination of performance effects and examinee reactions. To appear in Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied.

Ackerman, P. L. (in press). Personality and intelligence. To appear in P. J. Corr & G. Matthews (Eds.) Cambridge Handbook of Personality (pp. 162-174). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ackerman, P. L. (in press). Personality and cognition. To appear in: Kreitler, S. (Ed.). Cognition and motivation: Forging an interdisciplinary perspective. Cambridge University Press.

Ackerman, P. L. (in press). Skill acquisition. To appear in I. B. Weiner & W. E. Craighead (Eds). Corsini’s Encyclopedia of Psychology, Fourth Edition. New York: Wiley.

2009

Ackerman, P. L., & Kanfer, R. (2009). Test length and cognitive fatigue: an empirical examination of performance effects and examinee reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 15, 163-181.

Ackerman, P. L., Kanfer, R., Wolman, S. D., & Haag, S. (2009). An empirical investigation of cognitive fatigue during testing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 15, 163-181.

Ackerman, P. L. (2009). On weaving personality into a tapestry of traits. British Journal of Psychology, 100, 249-252.

Kanfer, R. (2009). Work motivation: Identifying new use-inspired research directions. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 2, 77-93.

Kanfer, R. (2009). Work motivation: Advancing theory and impact. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 2, 118-127.

Beier, M.,E. & Kanfer, R. (2009). Motivation in training and development: A phase perspective. In S.W. J. Kozlowski & E. Salas (Eds.), Learning, Training, and Development in Organizations (pp. 65-97). NY: Psychology Press.

Robertson, B.R., Schumacher, L., Gosman, G., Kanfer, R., Kelley, M., & DeVita, M. (2009). Simulation-based crisis team training for multidisciplinary obstetric providers. Simulation and Health Care, 4, 77-83.

2008

Wegge, J., Roth, C., Neubach, B., Schmidt, K. H., & Kanfer, R. (2008). Age and gender diversity as determinants of performance and health in a public organization: The role of task complexity and group size. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 1301-1313.

Kanfer, R., Chen, G., & Pritchard, R. D. (2008). The three C’s of work motivation: Context, content, and change. In R. Kanfer, G. Chen, & R. D. Pritchard (Eds), Work Motivation: Past, present, and future (pp. 1-16). NY: Psychology Press.

Kanfer, R., & Stubblebine, P. (2008). Affect and work motivation. In N. M. Ashkansay & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Research Companion to Emotions in Organizations (pp.170-182). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.

Kanfer, R., Chen, G., & Pritchard, R. D. (2008). Forging new perspectives and directions in the new millennium. In R. Kanfer, G. Chen, & R. D. Pritchard (Eds), Work Motivation: Past, present, and future (pp. 601-632). NY: Psychology Press.

Ackerman, P. L. (2008). Knowledge and cognitive aging. In F. Craik & T. Salthouse (Eds.) The Handbook of Aging and Cognition: Third Edition, (pp. 443-489). New York: Psychology Press.

Kanfer, R. & Ackerman, P. L. (2008). Aging and work motivation. In C. Wankel (Ed.) Handbook of 21st Century Management, (pp. 160-169). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Ackerman, P. L., Kanfer, R., & Wolman, S. D. (2008). Effects of total SAT test time on performance and fatigue. . College Board Research Note #RN-37. New York: College Board.

2007

Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (2007). Aging and work motivation. In C. Wankel (Ed.), 21st Century Management: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 2; pp. 160-169). Sage Publications.

Chen, G., Kirkman, B. L., & Kanfer, R., Allen, D., & Rosen, B. (2007). A multilevel study of leadership, empowerment, and performance in teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 341-346

Ackerman, P. L. (2007). New developments in understanding skilled performance. Current Directions in Psychological Research, 16, (pp.235-239).

Ackerman, P. L. (2007). Bridging science and application. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 13, (pp.179-181).

Ackerman, P. L. (2007). Knowledge, abilities, and will. In J. S. Carlson, & J. R. Levin (Eds.). Educating the Evolved Mind: Conceptual foundations for an Evolutionary Educational Psychology (pp. 101-108). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

Ackerman, P. L., & Beier, M. E. (2007). Further explorations of perceptual speed abilities, in the context of assessment methods, cognitive abilities and individual differences during skill acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 13, 249-272.

Ackerman, P. L. (2007). Aptitude Test. In N.J. Salkind (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Measurement and Statistics (pp.39-43).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Ackerman, P. L., & Wolman, S.D. (2007).Determinants and validity of self-estimates of abilities and self-concept measures.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 13, 57-78.VIEW ABSTRACT

Beier, M.E., & Ackerman, P.L. (2007). Cognitive abilities in personnel selection and testing (pp. 605-627). In F. Durso, R. Nickerson, S. Dumais, S.Lewandowsky, & T. Perfect (Eds.), Handbook of Applied COgnition (2nd Ed). NY: Wiley.

Voelkle, M.C., Ackerman, P.L., & Wittmann, W.W. (2007). Effect sizes and F-ratios below 1.0: Sense or nonsense.Methodology: European Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences,3, 35-46.VIEW ABSTRACT

Voelkle, M.C., Wittmann, W.W., & Ackerman, P.L. (2007). Abilities and skill acquisition: A latent growth curve approach. Learning and Individual Differences, 16, 303-319.VIEW ABSTRACT

2006

Chen, G., & Kanfer, R. (2006). Toward a systems theory of motivated behavior in work teams. Research in Organizational Behavior, 27, 223-267.

Ackerman, P. L. (2006). Personality, trait complexes, and adult intelligence. In A. Eliasz, S. Hampson, & B. de Raad (Eds.) Advances in Personality, Volume II (pp.91-112), New York: Psychology Press.

Ackerman, P. L. (2006).Cognitive sex differences and mathematics and science achievement. American Psychologist, 61, 722-723.VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P.L., & Beier, M.E. (2006).Determinants of domain knowledge and independent study learning in an adult sample. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 366-381.VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L. & Beier, M.E. (2006). Methods for studying the structure of expertise: psychometric approaches. In A. Ericsson, P. Feltovich, N. Charness, & R.R. Hoffman (Eds.) Cambridge Handbook on Expertise and Expert Performance (pp.147-166). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Ackerman, P. L. & Lohman, D.F. (2006). Individual differences in cognitive functions. In P.A. Alexander, P.R. Pintrich, & P.H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology, 2nd Edition (pp.139-161). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Furnham, A., & Ackerman, P. L. (2006).Ability and personality correlates of general knowledge. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 419-429.VIEW ABSTRACT

Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Furnham, A., & Ackerman, P. L. (2006).Incremental validity of typical intellectual engagement as predictor of different academic performance measures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 87, 261-268.VIEW ABSTRACT

2005

Ackerman, P. L. (2005). Ability determinants of individual differences in skilled performance. In Sternberg, R. J., & Pretz, J. E. (Eds.) Cognition and Intelligence: Identifying the Mechanisms of the Mind (pp. 142-159). NY: Cambridge University Press.

Ackerman, P. L., & Beier, M. E. (2005). Knowledge and Intelligence. In O. Wilhelm, & R. Engle (Eds.) Handbook of understanding and measuring intelligence. (pp. 125-139). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., & Boyle, M. O. (2005). Working memory and intelligence: The same or different constructs? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 30-60.VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L., & Kanfer, R. (2005). Trait Complexes, learning, and Brunswik Symmetry. In A. Beuducel, B. Biehl, M. Bosnjak, W. Conrad, G. Schonberger, & D. Wagener (Eds.), Multivariate Research Strategies: Fetschrift in honor of Werner W. Wittmann. (pp. 21-38). Aachen, Germany: Shaker Verlag.

Beier, M. E., & Ackerman, P. L. (2005). Age, ability and the role of prior knowledge on the acquisition of new domain knowledge.Psychology and Aging,20, 341-355.VIEW ABSTRACT

Beier, M. E., & Ackerman, P. L. (2005). Working memory and intelligence: Different constructs. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 72-75.VIEW ABSTRACT

Chen, G.,Kirkman, B. L., Kanfer, R. & Allen, D. (2005). A multilevel, quasi-experimental study of leadership, empowerment, and performance in teams.Academy of Management Best Paper Proceedings.

Heggestad, E. D., & Kanfer, R. (2005). The predictive validity of self-efficacy in training performance: Little more than past performance.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11 , 84-97.VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R. (2005). Emotions in work place. In Roberts & J. Minsky (Eds.), Proceedings from the ETS and ARI Emotional Intelligence Workshop (Vol. 3,pp. 98-136). Princeton NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Kanfer, R. (2005). Self Regulation in work and I/O Psychology.Applied Psychology: An International Review, 54, 186-191.VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R. (2005). When to leave the table.TIP The Industrial/Organizational Psychologist. Bowling Green, Ohio: Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 74. 74-76.

Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (2005). Work competence: A person-oriented perspective. In A. J. Elliot & C.S. Dweck (Eds.) Handbook of Competence and Motivation (pp. 336-353). NY: Guilford Publications.

Morris, M. G., Venkatesh, V., & Ackerman, P. L. (2005). Gender and age differences in employee decisions about new technology: An extension to the theory of planned behavior. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 52 (pp. 69-84).

Wolf, M. B., & Ackerman, P. L. (2005). Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analtic invenstigation.Personality and Indiviual Differences,39, 531-542.VIEW ABSTRACT

2004

Ackerman, P. L., & Kanfer, R. (2004). Cognitive, affective, and conative aspects of adult intellect within a typical and maximal performance framework. In D. Y. Dai & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.) Motivation, emotion, and cognition: Integrated perspectives on intellectual functioning (pp. 119-141). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Beier, M.E. & Ackerman, P.L. (2004). A reapprasial of the relationship between span memory and intelligence via "best evidence synthesis." Intelligence: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 32(6), 607-619.VIEW ABSTRACT

Franco, L.M., Bennett, S., Kanfer, R., & Stubblebine, P. (2004). Determinants and consequences of health worker motivation in hospitals in Jordan and Georgia. Social Science and Medicine, 58, 343-355.VIEW ABSTRACT

Boyle, M. O., & Ackerman, P. L. (2004). Individual differences in skill acquisition. In A. M. Williams, N. J. Hodges, M. A. Scott, & M. L. J. Court (Eds). Skill acquisition in sport: Research, theory and practice (pp. 84-102). Taylor and Francis/Routledge.

Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (2004). Aging, adult development and work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 29(3), 440-458.VIEW ABSTRACT

Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Sykes, T. A., & Ackerman, P. L. (2004). Individual reactions to new technologies in the workplace: The role of gender as a psychological construct. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(3), 445-467.VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L. (January, 2004). Remembrance of Lloyd G. Humphreys. American Psychological Society Observer.

Ackerman, P. L., & Humphreys, M. S. (2004). Obituary: Lloyd G. Humphreys.American Psychologist, 59,637-638.

2003

Ackerman, P. L. (2003). Aptitude complexes and trait complexes. Educational Psychologist, 38, 85-93. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L. (2003). Cognitive ability and non-ability trait determinants of expertise. Educational Researcher, 32(8), 15-20.VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L., & Beier, M. E. (2003). Intelligence, personality, and interests in the career choice process. Journal of Career Assessment, 11(2), 205-218.VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L., & Beier, M. E. (2003). Trait complexes, cognitive investment and domain knowledge. Chapter in R. J. Sternberg & E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.). Perspectives on the psychology of abilities, competencies, and expertise. (pp. 1-30). NY: Cambridge University Press.

Ackerman, P. L. & Lohman, D. F. (2003). Education and g. Chapter in H. Nyborg (Ed.). The scientific study of general intelligence -- Tribute to Arthur R. Jensen (pp. 275-292). Amsterdam: Pergamon/Elsevier Science.

Beier, M. E., & Ackerman, P. L. (2003). Determinants of health knowledge: An investigation of age, gender, abilities, personality, and interests. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 439-448. VIEW ABSTRACT

2002

Ackerman, P. L. (2002). Editorial. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8(1), 3-5.

Ackerman, P. L. (2002). Gender differences in intelligence and knowledge: How should we look at achievement score differences? Issues in Education: Contributions from Educational Psychology, 8(1), 21-29.

Ackerman, P. L. (2002). Cognitive processes: Historical perspective. In R. Fernandez-Ballesteros (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Psychological Assessment (pp. 241-244). London: Sage.

Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. B., & Bowen, K. R. (2002). What we really know about our abilities and our knowledge. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 587-605. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., & Boyle, M. O. (2002). Individual differences in working memory within a nomological network of cognitive and perceptual speed abilities. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131, 567-589. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L., & Cianciolo, A. T. (2002). Ability and task constraint determinants of complex task performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8(3), 194-208. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R., & Kantrowitz, T. M. (2002). Ability and non-ability predictors of performance. In S. Sonnentag (Ed.), Psychological Management of Individual Performance: A Handbook in the Psychology of Management in Organizations. Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Kanfer, R., and Kantrowitz, T. M. (2002). Emotion regulation: Command and Control of emotions in work life. In R. Lord, R. Klimoski, & R. Kanfer (Eds.), Emotions in the Workplace: Understanding the Structure and Role of Emotions in Organizational Behavior (pp. 443-472). San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass.

Lord, R., & Kanfer, R. (2002). Emotions and Organizational Behavior. In R. Lord, R. Klimoski, & R. Kanfer (Eds.), Emotions in the Workplace: Understanding the Structure and Role of Emotions in Organizational Behavior (pp.5-19). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Franco, L. M.,Bennett, S., & Kanfer, R. (2002). Health sector reform and public sector health work motivation: A conceptual framework. Social Science and Medicine, 54, 1255-1266.

2001

Ackerman, P. L. (2001). Adult intelligence from knowledge and trait complex perspectives. In R. K. Silbereisen and M. Reitzle (Eds.) Bericht über den 42. Kongreß der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Psychologie in Jena 2000. (pp. 57-64.) Berlin: Pabst

Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. B., & Bowen, K. R. (2001). What we really know about our abilities and our knowledge. Personality and Individual Differences.

Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., & Bowen, K. R. (2000 [published 4/01]). Explorations of crystallized intelligence: Completion tests, cloze tests and knowledge. Learning and Individual Differences: A Multidisciplinary Journal in Education, 12, 105-121.. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L., Bowen, K. R., Beier, M. B., & Kanfer, R. (2001). Determinants of individual differences and gender differences in knowledge. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 797-825. VIEW ABSTRACT

Beier, M. E., & Ackerman, P. L. (2001). Current events knowledge in adults: An investigation of age, intelligence and non-ability determinants. Psychology and Aging, 16, 615-628. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R. (2001). I/O Psychology: Working at the basic-applied psychology interface. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 235-240.

Kanfer, R. (2001). Motivation and self-regulation: A trait-skill conceptualization. In Bericht über den 42. Knogreß der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Psychologie in Jena 2000. Berlin, Germany: Pabst Publishers.

Kanfer, R., Wanberg, C., & Kantrowitz, T. M. (2001). Job search and employment: A personality-motivational analysis and meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 837-855. VIEW ABSTRACT

2000

Ackerman, P. L. (2000). A reappraisal of the ability determinants of individual differences in skilled performance. Psychologische Beiträge, 42, 4-17. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L. (2000). Aptitude Tests. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Psychology. Washington D.C./New York, NY: American Psychological Association/Oxford University Press.

Ackerman, P. L. (2000). Domain-specific knowledge as the "dark matter" of adult intelligence: gf/gc, personality and interest correlates. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 55B(2), P69-P84. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L., & Cianciolo, A. T. (2000). Cognitive, perceptual speed, and psychomotor determinants of individual differences during skill acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 6, 259-290. VIEW ABSTRACT

Heggestad, E.D., & Kanfer, R. (2000). Individual differences in trait motivation: Development of the Motivational Trait Questionnaire. International Journal of Educational Research, 33, 751-776.

Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (2000). Individual differences in work motivation: Further explorations of a trait framework. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 49(3), 470-482. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R., & McCombs, B. L. (2000). Motivation: Applying current theory to critical issues in training. In S. Tobias & J.D. Fletcher (Eds.), Training and retraining: A handbook for business, government, and the military (pp. 85-108). New York: Macmillan.

Venkatesh, V., Morris, M., & Ackerman, P. L. (2000). A longitudinal field investigation of gender differences in individual technology adoption decision making processes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 83, 33-60. VIEW ABSTRACT

Wanberg, C., Kanfer, R., & Banas, J. T. (2000). Predictors and outcomes of networking behavior among unemployed job seekers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 491-503. VIEW ABSTRACT

1999

Ackerman, P. L. (1999). Review of A. R. Jensen (1998). The g factor: The Science of Mental Ability. In The Annals of The American Academy of Political and Social Science, 563, 235-236.

Ackerman, P. L. (1999). Traits and knowledge as determinants of learning and individual differences: Putting it all together. Chapter in P. L. Ackerman, P. C. Kyllonen, & R. D. Roberts (Eds.), Learning and Individual Differences: Process, Trait, and Content Determinants. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Ackerman, P. L., & Cianciolo, A. T. (1999). Psychomotor abilities via touchpanel testing: Measurement innovations, construct, and criterion validity. Human Performance, 12, 231-273. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L., Kyllonen, P.C., & Roberts, R.D. (Eds.) (1999). Learning and Individual Differences: Process, Trait, and Content Determinants. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Ackerman, P. L. & Rolfhus, E. L. (1999). The locus of adult intelligence: Knowledge, abilities, and non-ability traits. Psychology and Aging, 14, 314-330. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R. (1999). Measuring Health Worker Motivation in Developing Countries. Partnerships for Health Reform Project Technical Report. Bethesda, MD.

Kanfer, R. & Heggestad, E. (1999). Individual differences in motivation: Traits and self-regulatory skills. In P. L. Ackerman, P.C. Kyllonen, and R.D. Roberts (Eds.), Learning and Individual Differences: Process, Trait, and Content Determinants (pp. 293-309). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Rolfhus, E. L., & Ackerman, P. L. (1999). Assessing individual differences in knowledge: Knowledge structures and traits. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 511-526. VIEW ABSTRACT

Wanberg, C., Kanfer, R., & Rotondo, M. (1999). Unemployed individuals: Motives, job-search competencies, and job-search constraints as predictors of job seeking and reemployment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 897-910.VIEW ABSTRACT

1998

Ackerman, P. L. (1998). Adult intelligence: Sketch of a theory and applications to learning & education, pp. 143-156. In M. C. Smith & T. Pourchot (Eds.) Adult learning and development: Perspectives from educational psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

1997

Ackerman, P. L. (1997). Personality, self-concept, interests, and intelligence: Which construct doesn't fit? Journal of Personality, 65(2), 171-204. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L. (1997). What's intelligence got to do with it? A review of E. Hunt (1995). Will we be smart enough?: A cognitive task analysis of the coming workplace. Contemporary Psychology, 42, 692-695.

Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D. (1997). Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 219-245. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R. & Heggestad, E. (1997). Motivational traits and skills: A person-centered approach to work motivation. In L. L. Cummings and B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, 19, 1-57. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT. VIEW ABSTRACT

1996

Ackerman, P. L. (1996). A theory of adult intellectual development: process, personality, interests, and knowledge. Intelligence, 22, 229-259. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L. (1996). Intelligence as process and knowledge: An integration for adult development and application. In W. A. Rogers, A. D. Fisk, & N. Walker (Eds.), Aging and skilled performance: Advances in theory and applications (pp. 139-156). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Goska, R. E., & Ackerman, P. L. (1996). An aptitude-treatment interaction approach to transfer within training. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 249-259. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R., (1996). Learning from failure: It's not easy. Psychological Inquiry, 7, 50-53.

Kanfer, R. (1996). Motivation. In N. Nicholson (Ed.), The Blackwell Encyclopedia Dictionary of Organizational Behavior (pp. 331-334). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Kanfer, R. (1996). Motivation and performance. In N. Nicholson (Ed.), The Blackwell Encyclopedia Dictionary of Organizational Behavior (pp. 334-336). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Kanfer, R. (1996). Self-regulatory and other non-ability determinants of skill acquisition. In J. A. Bargh & P. M. Gollwitzer (Eds.), The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior (pp. 404-423). New York: Guilford.

Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (1996). A self-regulatory skills perspective to reducing cognitive interference. In I. G. Sarason, B. R. Sarason, & G. R. Pierce (Eds.), Cognitive interference: Theories, methods, and findings (pp. 153-171). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kanfer, R., Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D. (1996). Motivational skills & self-regulation for learning: A trait perspective. Learning and Individual Differences, 8, 185-209. VIEW ABSTRACT

Murtha, T. C., Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (1996). Towards an interactionist taxonomy of personality and situations: An integrative situational-dispositional representation of personality traits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 193-207. VIEW ABSTRACT

Rolfhus, E. L., & Ackerman, P. L. (1996). Self-report knowledge: At the crossroads of ability, interest, and personality. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 174-188. VIEW ABSTRACT

Schneider, R. J., Ackerman, P. L., & Kanfer, R. (1996). To "act wisely in human relations:" Exploring the dimensions of social competence. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 469-481. VIEW ABSTRACT

1995

Ackerman, P. L., Kanfer, R., & Goff, M. (1995). Cognitive and non-cognitive determinants and consequences of complex skill acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 1, 270-304. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R., Ackerman, P. L., Murtha, T., & Goff, M. (1995). Personality and intelligence in industrial and organizational psychology. In D. H. Saklofske & M. Zeidner (Eds.), International Handbook of Personality and Intelligence, (pp. 577-602.) New York: Plenum.

1994

Ackerman, P. L. (1994). Intelligence, attention, and learning: Maximal and typical performance. Chapter in D. K. Detterman (Ed.) Current Topics in Human Intelligence; Volume 4: Theories of Intelligence, (pp. 1-27.) Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Ackerman, P. L., & Goff, M. (1994) Typical intellectual engagement and personality: Reply to Rocklin (1994). Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 150-153. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L., & Woltz, D. J. (1994). Determinants of learning and performance in an associative memory/substitution task: Task constraints, individual differences, and volition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 487-515. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R., Ackerman, P. L., Murtha, T. C., Dugdale, B., & Nelson, L. (1994). Goal Setting, Conditions of practice, and task performance: A resource allocation perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 826-835. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R., Dugdale, B., & McDonald, B. (1994). Empirical findings on the Action Control Scale in the context of complex skill acquisition. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Volition and personality: Action- and state-oriented modes of control (pp. 61-77). Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers.

Leon, G., Kanfer, R., Hoffman, R. G., & Dupre, L. (1994). Group processes and task effectiveness in a Soviet-American expedition team. Environment and Behavior, 26, 149-165. VIEW ABSTRACT

1993

Ackerman, P. L. (1993). You're in the army now! A review of D. Druckman & R. A. Bjork (Eds.) (1991). In the mind's eye: Enhancing human performance. Contemporary Psychology, 38, 747-748.

Ackerman, P. L., & Kanfer, R. (1993). Integrating laboratory and field study for improving selection: Development of a battery for predicting air traffic controller success. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 413-432. VIEW ABSTRACT

Corno, L., & Kanfer, R. (1993). The role of volition in learning and performance. In L. Darling-Hammond (Ed.), Review of Research in Education, 21, 301-341. Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock Publishers.

Kanfer, R. (1993). Education from a workplace perspective: Issues of self-management. Resources in Education ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 348-717.

1992

Ackerman, P. L. (1992). Human intelligence. In S. C. Shapiro (Ed.) Encyclopedia of artificial intelligence (pp. 706-715). New York: Wiley.

Ackerman, P. L. (1992). Predicting individual differences in complex skill acquisition: Dynamics of ability determinants. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 598-614. VIEW ABSTRACT

Goff, M., & Ackerman, P. L. (1992). Personality-intelligence relations: Assessing typical intellectual engagement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 537-552. VIEW ABSTRACT

Johnson, D. S., & Kanfer, R. (1992). Goal-performance relations: The effects of initial task complexity and task practice. Motivation and Emotion, 16, 117-141.VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R. (1992). Work motivation: New directions in theory and research. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 7, 1-53. London: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Reprinted in C. L. Cooper and I. T. Robertson (Eds.)(1994). Key Reviews in Managerial Psychology. Concepts and Research for Practice. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

1991

Ackerman, P. L., & Humphreys, L. G. (1991). Individual differences theory in industrial and organizational psychology. Chapter in M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.) Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology, 1, 223 - 282. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Ackerman, P. L., & Kyllonen, P. C. (1991). Trainee characteristics. Chapter in J. E. Morrison (Ed.) Training for performance: Principles of applied human learning (pp. 193-229). West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Kanfer, R. (1991). It's a goal, goal, goal setting world. Review of a theory of goal setting and task performance by E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham. Contemporary Psychology, 36, 847-848.

Kanfer, R., & Kanfer, F. H. (1991). Goals and self-regulation: Applications of theory to work settings. In M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement, 7, 287-326. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Leon, G., Kanfer, R., Hoffman, R. G., & Dupre, L. (1991). Interrelationships of personality, coping, and group processes in a Soviet-American expedition team. Journal of Research in Personality, 25, 357-371.VIEW ABSTRACT

1990

Ackerman, P. L. (1990). A correlational analysis of skill specificity: Learning, abilities, and individual differences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 883-901. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L. (1990). Coffee, tea,...or tragedy? A review of E. L. Weiner & D. C. Nagel (Eds.) (1988). Human factors in aviation. Contemporary Psychology, 35, 394-395.

Kanfer, R. (1990). Motivation and Individual Differences in Learning: An Integration of Developmental, Differential, and Cognitive Perspectives. Learning and Individual Differences, 2, 221-239.VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R. (1990). Motivation theory and Industrial/Organizational psychology. In M.D. Dunnette and L. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Volume I. Theory in industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 75-170). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Lind, E. A., Kanfer, R., & Earley, P. C. (1990). Voice, control, and procedural justice: Instrumental and noninstrumental concerns in fairness judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 952-959.VIEW ABSTRACT

1989

Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Abilities, elementary information processes, and other sights to see at the zoo. In R. Kanfer, P. L. Ackerman, & R. Cudeck (Eds.) Abilities, motivation, and methodology: The Minnesota symposium on learning and individual differences (pp. 281-293). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Individual differences and skill acquisition. In P. L. Ackerman, R. J. Sternberg, & R. Glaser (Eds.). Learning and individual differences: Advances in theory and research (pp. 165-217). New York: W. H. Freeman.

Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Within-task intercorrelations of skilled performance: Implications for predicting individual differences? Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 360-364. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, L., & Ackerman P. L. (1989). Generational differences and parent-child resemblance in achievement motives and locus of control: A cross-sectional analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 1237-1242. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L., Sternberg, R. J., & Glaser, R. (Eds.) (1989). Learning and individual differences: Advances in theory and research. New York: W. H. Freeman.

Kanfer, R. (1989). Non-cognitive processes, dispositions, and performance: Connecting the dots within and across paradigms. In R. Kanfer, P. L. Ackerman, & R. Cudeck (Eds.), Abilities, Motivation, and Methodology: The Minnesota Symposium on Learning and Individual Differences (pp. 375-388). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Dynamics of skill acquisition: Building a bridge between abilities and motivation. In R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence. Volume V (pp. 99-134). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Motivation and cognitive abilities: An integrative/aptitude-treatment interaction approach to skill acquisition. Journal of Applied Psychology - Monograph, 74, 657-690. VIEW ABSTRACT Reprinted in C. L. Cooper (Ed.)(1991). Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Volume I (pp. 66-99). Hants, England: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Kanfer, R., Ackerman, P. L., & Cudeck, R. (Eds.)(1989). Abilities, motivation, and methodology: The Minnesota Symposium on Learning and Individual Differences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Paese, P. W., Lind, E. A., & Kanfer, R. (1989). Procedural fairness and work group responses to performance evaluation systems. Social Justice Research, 2, 193-205.VIEW ABSTRACT

1988

Ackerman, P. L. (1988). A review of L. S. Gottfredson (Ed.) The g factor in employment. Journal of Vocational Behavior (Special Issue) Educational and Psychological Measurement, 48, 553-558.

Ackerman, P. L. (1988). Determinants of individual differences during skill acquisition: Cognitive abilities and information processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117, 288-318. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ahrens, T., Zeiss, A., & Kanfer, R. (1988). Dysphoric deficits in interpersonal standards, self-efficacy, and social comparison. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 12, 53-67. VIEW ABSTRACT

Fisk, A. D., & Ackerman, P. L. (1988). Effects of type responding on memory/visual search: Responding just "yes" or just "no" can lead to inflexible performance. Perception & Psychophysics, 43, 373-379. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R., Crosby, J. V., & Brandt, D. M. (1988). Investigating behavioral antecedents of turnover at three job tenure levels. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 331-335.VIEW ABSTRACT

1987

Ackerman, P. L. (1987). Individual differences in skill learning: An integration of psychometric and information processing perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 3-27. VIEW ABSTRACT

Ackerman, P. L. (1987). Intelligence. In S. C. Shapiro (Ed.) Encyclopedia of artificial intelligence. Vol. I (pp. 431-440). New York: Wiley.

Fisk, A. D., Ackerman, P. L., & Schneider, W. (1987). Automatic and controlled processing theory and its application to human factors problems. In P. A. Hancock (Ed.) Human factors psychology (pp. 159-197). New York: North Holland.

Kanfer, R. (1987). Task-specific motivation: An integrative approach to issues of measurement, mechanisms, processes, and determinants. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 5, 237-264. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R., Sawyer, J., Earley, P. C., & Lind, E. A. (1987). Fairness and participation in evaluation procedures: Effects on task attitudes and performance. Social Justice Research, 1, 235-249. VIEW ABSTRACT

1986

Ackerman, P. L. (1986). Individual differences in information processing: An investigation of intellectual abilities and task performance during practice. Intelligence, 10, 101-139. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R., & Borman, W. C. (1986). Predicting salesperson performance: A review of the literature. (Army Project Number 2Q263731A792; ARI Technical Report) Minneapolis, MN: Personnel Decisions Research Institute.

1985

Ackerman, P. L., & Schneider, W. (1985). Individual differences in automatic and controlled information processing. In R. F. Dillon (Ed.) Individual differences in cognition, Vol. II (pp. 36-66). New York: Academic Press.

Drasgow, F., & Kanfer, R. (1985). Equivalence of psychological measurement in heterogeneous populations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 662-680. VIEW ABSTRACT

Earley, P. C., & Kanfer, R. (1985). The influence of component participation and role models on goal acceptance, goal satisfaction, and performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 36, 378-390. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R. (1985). Coping with stress. In B. N. Barge, L. M. Hough, M.D. Dunnette, E. Kemery, R. Kanfer, J. Kamp, & M. Cardoza. Behavioral reliability: A review of academic literature and organizational programs (pp. 59-80). Technical Report DNA TR 85-21. Minneapolis, MN: Personnel Decisions Research Institute.

Kanfer, R. (1985). The influence of work attitudes on performance motivation. In H. T. Spitze (Ed.), Human Factors in Productivity. Proceedings of the sixth annual Rupert N. Evans symposium (pp. 11-30). Urbana-Champaign, IL: Office of Vocational Education Research.

Kanfer, R., & Hulin, C. L. (1985). Individual differences in successful job searches following lay-off. Personnel Psychology, 38, 835-848. VIEW ABSTRACT

1984

Ackerman, P. L., & Schneider, W. (1984). Ramifications of practice effects for selection and training: A new approach to individual differences assessment. In A. Mital (Ed.) Trends in ergonomics/human factors (pp. 287-292). North-Holland: Elsevier.

Ackerman, P. L., Schneider, W., & Wickens, C. D. (1984). Deciding the existence of a time-sharing ability: A combined theoretical and methodological approach. Human Factors, 26, 71-82. VIEW ABSTRACT

Kanfer, R., Sawyer, J., Earley, P.C., & Lind, E. A. (1984). Information exchange in evaluation procedures: The effects of input and knowledge on performance and attitudes. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 246 363. VIEW ABSTRACT

1983

Hulin, C. L., Roznowski, M., & Kanfer, R. (1983). A multidimensional scaling of 14 Navy ratings: Input for predicting effectiveness responses. (Tech. Rep. TR 83-1). Champaign, IL.: Department of Psychology, University of Illinois.

Kanfer, R., Eyberg, S., & Krahn, G. (1983). Interviewing strategies in child assessment. In E. Walker and R. Roberts (Eds.), Handbook of clinical child psychology (pp. 95-108). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Updated reprint in E. Walker and R. Roberts (Eds.)(1992), Handbook of clinical child psychology (2nd edition), pp. 49-62.

Kanfer, R., & Zeiss, A. (1983). Interpersonal standard-setting and self-efficacy expectations in depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 92, 319-329. VIEW ABSTRACT

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Abstracts

Ackerman, P. L., & Wolman, S.D. (2007).Determinants and validity of self-estimates of abilities and self-concept measures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 13, 57-78.<<BACK TO LIST

How accurate are self-estimates of cognitive abilities? An investigation of verbal, math, and spatial abilities is reported with a battery of parallel objective tests of abilities. Self-estimates were obtained prior to and after objective ability testing (without test feedback) in order to examine whether self-estimates change after direct objective testing experience. Self-estimates showed small to large effect-size correlations with objective tests–larger for math and smaller for verbal. The construct space of self-estimates of abilities was explored in the context of self-concept, self-esteem, self-efficacy, personality, interests, motivational traits, and trait complexes. Self-efficacy and self-esteem variables showed the highest correlations with self-estimates of abilities. In general, trait complexes showed the highest correlations with verbal ability self-estimates and the lowest correlations with math ability self-estimates. Results are discussed in relation to the principle of aggregation, the influences of self-evaluative judgements, and uses for self-estimates of abilities measures.

Voelkle, M.C.,Ackerman, P. L., & Wittman, W.W. (2007).Effect sizes and F-ratios below 1.0: Sense or nonsense. Methodology: European Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 3, 35-46. <<BACK TO LIST

Standard statistics texts indicate that the expected value of the F ratio is 1.0 (more precisely: N/(N-2)) in a completely balanced fixed-effects ANOVA, when the null hypothesis is true. Even though some authors suggest that the null hypothesis is rarely true in practice (e.g., Meehl, 1990), F ratios < 1.0 are reported quite frequently in the literature. However, standard effect size statistics (e.g., Cohen's f) often yield positive values when F < 1.0, which appears to create confusion about the meaningfulness of effect size statistics when the null hypothesis may be true. Given the repeated emphasis on reporting effect sizes, it is shown that in the face of F < 1.0 it is misleading to only report sample effect size estimates as often recommended. Causes of F ratios < 1.0 are reviewed, illustrated by a short simulation study. The calculation and interpretation of corrected and uncorrected effect size statistics under these conditions are discussed. Computing adjusted measures of association strength and incorporating effect size confidence intervals are helpful in an effort to reduce confusion surrounding results when sample sizes are small. Detailed recommendations are directed to authors, journal editors, and reviewers.

Voelkle, M.C., Wittman, W.W., & Ackerman, P.L. (2007).Abilities and skill acquisition: A latent growth curve approach. Learning and Individual Differences, 16, 303-319. <<BACK TO LIST

The relationship between abilities and skill acquisition has been the subject of numerous controversies in psychology. However,while most researchers implicitly or explicitly accept the idea that abilities and skill acquisition should be related, empirical research has failed to provide evidence for a consistently strong correlation between the two constructs. Based on the reanalysis of a study on skill acquisition using the air traffic controller task TRACON [Ackerman, P. L., Kanfer, R., and Goff, M. (1995).Cognitive and Noncognitive Determinants and Consequences of Complex Skill Acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Applied, 1(4), 270–304], it will be shown how latent growth curve modeling can help to gain a better understanding of the relationship between human abilities and skill acquisition. A brief introduction into the basic concepts of latent growth curve modeling will be given, particularly with regard to the advantages for the analysis of skill acquisition and its determinants. The goal is thereby to provide evidence for a much closer association than commonly assumed and to offer a new, differential, perspective formerly obscured by traditional between-subject analyses. © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Ackerman, P. L. (2006).Cognitive sex differences and mathematics and science achievement. American Psychologist, 61, 722-723.<<BACK TO LIST

Comments on the original article "Sex Differences in Intrinsic Aptitude for Mathematics and Science?: A Critical Review," by E. S. Spelke (see record 2005-15840-001). Spelke considered "three claims that cognitive sex differences account for the differential representation of men and women in high-level careers in mathematics and science." The focus of this comment is on the claim regarding gender differences in mean levels of cognitive abilities. Spelke claimed (p. 954) that "most investigators of sex differences have concluded that males and females have equal cognitive ability, with somewhat different profiles." There are two major components to this comment. The first is mainly theoretical, and the second is both theoretical and empirical.

Ackerman, P. L., & Beier, M.E.(2006).Determinants of domain knowledge and independent study learning in an adult sample.Journal of Educational Psychology, 98,366-381. <<BACK TO LIST

The ability (fluid and crystallized intelligence) and nonability (personality, interests, self-concept, etc.) determinants of domain knowledge before and after an independent learning opportunity were evaluated in the context of a study of 141 adults between the ages of 18 and 69. The domain knowledge under consideration included an array of financial issues, including financial planning, retirement planning, debt management, and educational savings accounts. Crystallized intelligence was a stronger predictor than fluid intelligence of domain knowledge prior to learning, and nonability traits provided significant incremental predictive validity. After learning, fluid intelligence showed a marked increase in the prediction of domain knowledge, but the final correlation did not exceed that of crystallized intelligence. Implications for optimizing the prediction of educational success of adults are discussed.

Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Furnham, A., & Ackerman, P. L.(2006).Ability and personality correlates of general knowledge.Personality and Individual Differences, 41,419-429. <<BACK TO LIST

The relationship of general knowledge (GK) with ability (IQ and abstract reasoning) and personality (Big Five traits and Typical Intellectual Engagement [TIE]) was investigated in a sample of 201 British university students. As predicted, GK was positively correlated with cognitive ability (more so with IQ [r=.46] than with abstract reasoning [r=.37]), TIE (r=.36) and Openness to Experience (r=.16), and negatively related to Neuroticism (r=-.18) and Extraversion (r=-.16). A total of 26% of GK variance was explained by measures of intelligence, though personality traits (particularly Neuroticism and Extraversion) showed incremental validity (5%) in the prediction of GK. Applied and theoretical implications are discussed.

Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Furnham, A., & Ackerman, P. L.(2006).Incremental validity of typical intellectual engagement as predictor of different academic performance measures.Journal of Personality Assessment, 87,261-268. <<BACK TO LIST

The incremental validity of the Typical Intellectual Engagement (TIE) scale as a predictor of academic performance (AP) was tested over and above other established determinants of AP, namely, psychometric g (as extracted from 5 cognitive ability tests) and the Big Five personality traits, assessed by the Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Five Factor Inventory. One hundred four British students were tested on arrival to university, and AP measures were collected longitudinally throughout a 3-year period. TIE, g, and Conscientiousness were the highest correlates of AP. A series of multiple-hierarchical regressions showed that TIE had significant incremental validity (over and above g and the Big Five) in the prediction of AP. Implications are discussed in light of the investment theory of intellectual competence and the utility of self-report inventories as predictors of academic achievement.

Ackerman, P.L., Beier, M.E., & Boylse, M.O. (2005). Working Memory and intelligence: The same or different constructs? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 30-60. <<BACK TO LIST

Several investigators have claimed over the past decade that working memory (WM) and general intelligence (g) are identical, or nearly identical, constructs, from an indiviual-differences perspective. Although memory measures are commonly included in intelligence tests, and memory abilities are included in theories of intelligence, the identity between WM and intelligence has not been evaluated comprehensively. The authors conducted a meta-ananlysis of 86 samples that relate WM to intelligence. The average correlation between true-score estimates of WM and g is substantially less than unity (p=0.479). The authors also focus on the distinction between short-term memory and WM with respect to intelligence with a supplemental meta-analysis. The authors discuss how consideration of psychometric and theoretical perspectives better informs the discussion of WM-intelligence relations.

Beier, M.E., & Ackerman, P.L. (2005). Age, ability and the role or prior knowledge on the acquisition of new domain knowledge Psychology and Aging, 20, 341-355. <<BACK TO LIST

Prior knowledge, fluid intelligence (Gf), and crystallized intelligence (Gc) were investigated as predictors of learning new information about cardiovascular disease and xerography with a sample of 199 adults (19 to 68 years). The learning environment included a laboratory multimedia presentation (high-constraint-maximal effort), and a self-directed at-home study component (low-constraint-typical performance). Results indicated that prior knowledge and ability were important predictors of knowledge acquision for learning.Gc was directly related to learning from the video for both domains. Because the trajectory of Gc stays relativley stable throughout the life span, these findings provide a more optimistic perspective on the relationship between aging and learning than that offered by theroies that focus on the role of fluid abilities in learning.

Beier, M.E., & Ackerman, P.L. (2005). Working memory and intelligence: Different constructs. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 72-75. <<BACK TO LIST

The authors address agreements and disagreements with the M. J. Kane, D. Z. Hambrick, and A. R. A. Conway (2005; see record 2004-22408-004) and K. Oberauer, R. Schulze, O. Wilhelm, and H.-M. Süß (2005; see record 2004-22408-003) commentaries on P. L. Ackerman, M. E. Beier, and M. O. Boyle (2005; see record 2004-22408-002). They discuss the following issues: (a) the relationship between working memory (WM) and general intelligence (g), (b) the reanalyses included in the comments, (c) the use of a fixed-effects model versus a random-effects model for the meta-analysis, (d) the use of structural equation modeling analyses and structural coefficients as equivocal evidence for the relationship between WM and intelligence, and (e) the problem of confirmation bias in research on WM. Although the authors disagree with their commentators about the magnitude of the relationship between WM and g, in the final analysis it appears that all concerned parties agree that WM and intelligence are different constructs.

Heggestad, E.D., & Kanfer, R. (2005). The predictive validity of self-efficacy in training performance: Little more than past performace in teams. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11, 84-97. <<BACK TO LIST

Past research on the influence of self-efficacy in training has provided mixed results. Key differences between studies pertain to whether past performance is operationalized as a residual variable or as an unadjusted variable and to the type of tast used. In the study, the authors conducted and performed a reanalysis to examine the influence of self-efficacy using both operationalizations of past performance in 2 experimental tasks. Results indicate that, regardless of task version or type, self-efficacy predicted performance only when a residual measure of past performance was used, but not when past performance was unadjusted. However, when past performance was adjusted, the findings for self-efficacy were likely a statistical artifact. These results suggest that self-efficacy is a consequence rather than a cause of performance in training.

Kanfer, R. (2005). Self Regualtion in work and I/O Psychology. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 54, 186-191. <<BACK TO LIST

Over the past three decades, industrial/organisational (I/O) research on goals and self-regulation has flourished. Beginning with the seminal work by Locke, Latham, and their colleagues showing the positive influence of difficult and specific goals on task performance, multiple streams of research have emerged to investigate both the determinants and consequences of goals and self-regulation processes on work-related behaviors and outcomes (see, e.g. Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981; Vancouver, 2000, for reviews). In a review of this work, Vancouver and Day (see record 2005-03192-002) suggest that although organisational researchers have sought evidence for external and criterion-related validity, less attention has been given to the construct and internal validity of key variables and concepts, such as goals, self-efficacy, feedback, discrepancy, and self-efficacy. In a related vein, Vancouver and Day conclude that although I/O intervention studies based on the goal/self-regulation perspective show generally positive effects, such studies are insufficient for understanding how specific aspects of the goal/self-regulation process relate to enhanced performance. In this short note, I consider these concerns about goal/self-regulation research in I/O psychology from three perspectives: (1) scientific progress, (2) applications, and (3) the goals of I/O research.

Wolf, M.B., & Ackerman, P.L. (2005). Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 531-542. <<BACK TO LIST

Aspects of the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis were updated and expanded to address the complex, contradictory findings of the extraversion–intelligence relation. Although the estimated effect sizes in the current study remained slightly positive, there was a decrease in the magnitude of the effect across extraversion–intelligence pairs in comparison to the 1997 meta-analytic results. Correlations between the date of publication of the study and the observed extraversion–intelligence correlations were generally negative, which suggested a change in the magnitude of the extraversion–intelligence relation over time. Furthermore, the estimated effect size between extraversion and intelligence for studies conducted in the year 2000 and later was (p < .05), indicating that not only has the magnitude of the correlation decreased, but also that the direction of the correlation has changed from positive to slightly negative. Trends associated with two potential moderator variables are also discussed: the use of different measures and the average age of the samples.

Beier, M.E. & Ackerman, P.L. (2004). A reapprasial of the relationship between span memory and intelligence via "best evidence synthesis." Intelligence: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 32(6), 607-619.<<BACK TO LIST

This paper examines the relationship between span memory [e.g., immediate memory, short-term memory (STM), simple span] and general ability (g) though a reanalysis of two data sets [Christal, R. E. (1959). Factor analytic study of visual memory. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 72 (13, Whole No. 466); (see record 1959-09796-001); Kelley, H.P. (1964). Memory abilities: A factor analysis. Psychometric Monographs, No. 11]. Because of their large sample sizes and the multiple measures used to identify each construct, the Christal and Kelley studies were examined within a "best evidence synthesis" framework. Modern structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques were used to examine the relationship between immediate memory and g. Results indicated that in both studies, the relationship between immediate memory and g was quite substantial (.71 and .83), and that this relationship was essentially reduced by half when the common content variance of the tests was accounted for (e.g., verbal, spatial, numerical). Results are discussed within the context of recent research examining the relationship between working memory (WM) and g.

Franco, L.M., Bennett, S., Kanfer, R.,& Stubblebine,P. (2004). Determinants and consequences of health worker motivation in hospitals in Jordan and Georgia. Social Science and Medicine, 58, 343-355. <<BACK TO LIST

Health worker motivation reflects the interactions between workers and their work environment. Because of the interactive nature of motivation, local organizational and broader sector policies have the potential to affect motivation of health workers, either positively or negatively, and as such to influence health system performance. Yet little is known about the key determinants and outcomes of motivation in developing and transition countries. This exploratory research, unique in its broader study of a whole range of motivational determinants and outcomes, was conducted in two hospitals in Jordan and two in Georgia. Three complementary approaches to data collection were used: (1) a contextual analysis; (2) a qualitative 360-degree assessment; and (3) a quantitative in-depth analysis focused on the individual determinants and outcomes of the worker's motivational process. A wide range of psychometric scales was used to assess personality differences, perceived contextual factors and motivational outcomes on close to 500 employees in each country. This research highlights the complexity of worker motivation, and the need for a more comprehensive approach to increasing motivation, satisfaction and performance, and for interventions at both organizational and policy levels.

Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (2004). Aging, adult development, and work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 29(3), 440-458. <<BACK TO LIST

We describe a framework for understanding how age-related changes in adult development affect work motivation, and, building on recent life-span theories and research on cognitive abilites, personality, affect, vocational interests, values, and self-concept, identify four intraindiviual change trajectories (loss, gain, reorganization, and exchange). We discuess implications of the integrative framework for the use and affectivesness of different motivational strategies with midlife and older workers in a varity of jobs, as well as abiding issues and future research directions.

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Using the theory of planned behavior (TPB), individual reactions to a new technology and technology usage behavior were studied over a 12-month period among 552 employees being introduced to a new computer-based system in the workplace. When considering gender as a psychological construct by employing Bem's Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), important distinctions were revealed. Specifically, masculine gender-typed individuals were different from women in that they were influenced only by subjective norm and PBC. The balanced decision-making process was observed only in the case of individuals categorized as androgynous. The high percentage of women who tested to be androgynous explains the divergence in results from the previous work, and provides evidence of changing gender roles for women in today's organizations and society.

Ackerman, P. L. (2003). Aptitude complexes and trait complexes. Educational Psychologist, 38, 85-93. <<BACK TO LIST

The origins and development of the concept of aptitude complexes are reviewed. Initial empirical success in demonstrating interactions between aptitude complexes and instructional complexes by Richard E. Snow and his students are followed by an inductive approach to finding broader trait complexes. Three empirical studies of college students and adults up to age 62 are described, where trait complexes were correlated with domain knowledge and ability measures. Differentiated profiles of trait complex-knowledge-ability correlations were found and replicated across the three studies. Evidence for trait complexes that are supportive or impeding for the development of domain knowledge is reviewed. The aptitude complex/trait complex approach is viewed as important means toward reseraching and reevaluating the nature of aptitude-treatment interactions.

Ackerman, P. L. (2003). Cognitive ability and non-ability trait determinants of expertise. Educational Researcher, 32(8), 15-20. <<BACK TO LIST

Traditional approaches to understanding individual differences determinants of domain-specific expertise have focused on individual trait components, such as ability or topic interest. In contrast, trait complex approaches consider whether combinations of cognitive, affective, and conative traits are particularly facilitative or impeding of the development of domain knowledge. This article reviews an investment theory and empirical research concerning a relatively small set of trait complexes that appear to be instrumental correlates of both individual and group differences in expertise across several academic domains. Implications for academic couseling and instructional interventions are discussed.

Ackerman, P.L., & Beier, M.E. (2003). Intelligence, personality, and interests in the career choice process. Journal of Career Assessment, 11(2), 205-218. <<BACK TO LIST

Historically, many researchers have considered the domains of intellectual abilities, personality, and interests to be both distince and distant from one another. Recent meta-analytic reviews and new empirical research suggest that there are fundamental communalities among particular measures of cognition, affect, and conation. These communalities, in turn, yield a relatively small set of trait complexes - groups of traits that are related to one another and that appear to be differentially related to career choices and adult intellectual development. Derivation of trait complexes is described; empirical data on trait complexes, career choice, and domain-specific knowledge are reviewed; and implications for developments in vocational and educational couseling are suggested.

Beier, M. E., & Ackerman, P. L. (2003). Determinants of health knowledge: An investigation of age, gender, abilities, personality, and interests. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84 (2), 439-448. <<BACK TO LIST

Ten areas of health knowledge were investigated in 2 studies, 1 of college students (N=169) and 1 of adults from the community (ages 19-70; N=176). Measures assessed knowledge of aging, orthopedic/ dermatological concerns, common illnesses, childhood/early life, serious illnesses, mental health, nutrition, reproduction, safety, and treatment of illness/disease. Significant gender differences favoring women were found for most areas of health knowledge, especially reproduction and early life. Results showed that cognitive ability accounted for the most variance in health knowledge with nonability (personality and interest traits) and demographic variables accounting for smaller but significant amounts of variance across most knowledge domains.

Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. B., & Bowen, K. R. (2002). What we really know about our abilities and our knowledge. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 587-605. <<BACK TO LIST

Recent research has only documented the experimental side of the scientific divide (which focuses on means and ignores individual differences) regarding what individuals know about their abilities and knowledge level. The current paper shows that research from the other side of the scientific divide, namely the correlational approach (which focuses on individual differences), provides a very different perspective for people's views of their own intellectual abilities and knowledge. Previous research is reviewed, and an empirical study of 228 adults (aged 21-62 yrs) is described where self-report assessments of abilities and knowledge are compared with objective measures. Correlations of self-rating and objective-score pairings show
both substantial convergent and discriminant validity, indicating that individuals have both generally accurate and differentiated views of their relative standing on abilities and knowledge.

Ackerman, P. L., & Cianciolo, A. T. (2002). Ability and task constraint determinants of complex task performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8(3), 194-208. <<BACK TO LIST

Previous research on basic information processing tasks has suggested that there may be a dissociation between the underlying process determinants of task performance and associations with ability measures. The current study investigates this dissociation in the context of a complex skill learning task -- an air traffic control simulation called TRACON. A battery of spatial, numerical, and perceptual speed ability tests was administered, along with extensive task practice. After practice, manipulations of task requirements and system consistency were introduced. Ability correlations with performance revealed a dissociation between some manipulations that have effects on performance means and the corresponding correlations with reference abilities. Implications for integrating experimental and differential approaches to explaining performance, and possible avenues for improved selection measures are discussed.

Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., & Boyle, M. O. (2002). Individual differences in working memory within a nomological network of cognitive and perceptual speed abilities. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131, 567-589. <<BACK TO LIST

It has become fashionable to equate constructs of working memory (WM) and general intelligence (g). Few investigations have provided direct evidence that WM and g measures yield similar ordering of individuals. Correlational investigations have yielded mixed results. The authors assess the construct space for WM and g and demonstrate that WM shares substantial variance with perceptual speed (PS) constructs. Thirty-six ability tests representing verbal, numerical, spatial, and PS abilities; the Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices; and 7 WM tests were administered to 135 adults. A nomological representation for WM is provided through a series of cognitive and PS ability models. Construct overlap between PS and WM is further investigated with attention to complexity, processing differences, and practice effects.

Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., & Bowen, K. R. (2000 [published 4/01]). Explorations of crystallized intelligence: Completion tests, cloze tests and knowledge. Learning and Individual Differences: A Multidisciplinary Journal in Education, 12, 105-121. <<BACK TO LIST

An attempt is made to reconcile two historically important tools for the assessment of intelligence and the prediction of academic achievement with extant theories of verbal-crystallized-knowledge aspects of adult abilities. A study of 167 adults (aged 18-69 yrs) reasserts the importance of individual differences in completion test and cloze test performance in accounting for both measures of crystallized intelligence (Gc) and four scales of knowledge (biology, US history, US literature, and technology). The completion tests were found to account for all of the variance in Gc and knowledge that the cloze tests accounted for, and resulted in incremental predictive validity for both domains. In addition, completion and cloze tests were found to have a suppressor effect on the relationship between Gc and Age. We note that C. Spearman's (1927) assertion, namely that the completion test had higher correlations with intelligence than any other measure. Our results suggest that abstract reasoning may be far less useful in predicting learning and performance than the completion test is.

Ackerman, P. L., Bowen, K. R., Beier, M. E., & Kanfer, R. (2001). Determinants of individual differences and gender differences in knowledge. Journal of Education Psychology, 93(4), 797-825.<<BACK TO LIST
The authors investigated the abilities, self-concept, personality, interest, motivational traits, and other determinants of knowledge across physical sciences/technology, biology/psychology, humanities, and civics domains. Tests and self-report measures were administered to 320 university freshmen. Crystallized intelligence was a better predictor than was fluid intelligence for most knowledge domains. Gender differences favoring men were found for most knowledge domains. Accounting for intelligence reduced the gender influence in predicting knowledge differences. Inclusion of nonability predictors further reduced the variance accounted for by gender. Analysis of Advanced Placement test scores largely supported the results of the knowledge tests. Results are consistent with theoretical predictions that development of intellect as knowledge results from investment of cognitive resources, which, in turn, is affected by a small set of trait complexes.

Beier, M. E., and Ackerman, P. L. (2001). Current-events knowledge in adults: An investigation of age, intelligence, and nonability determinants. Psychology and Aging, 16(4), 615-628.<<BACK TO LIST
This study expanded the scope of knowledge typically included in intellectual assessment to incorporate domains of current-events knowledge from the 1930s to the 1990s across the areas of art/humanities, politics/economics, popular culture, and nature/science/technology. Results indicated that age of participants was significantly and positively related to knowledge about current events. Moreover, fluid intelligence was a less effective predictor of knowledge levels than was crystallized intelligence. Personality (i.e., Openness to Experience) and self-concept were also positively related to current-events knowledge. The results are consistent with an investment theory of adult intellect, which views development as an ongoing outcome of the combined influences of intelligence-as-process, personality, and interests, leading to intelligence-as-knowledge (P. L. Ackerman, 1996b).

Kanfer, R., Wanberg, C. R., & Kantrowitz, T. M. (2001). Job search and employment: A personality-motivational analysis and meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(5), 837-855.<<BACK TO LIST
A motivational, self-regulatory conceptualization of job search was used to organize and investigate the relationships between personality, expectancies, self, social, motive, and biographical variables and individual differences in job search behavior and employment outcomes. Meta-analytic results indicated that all antecedent variables, except optimism, were significantly related to job search behavior, with estimated population correlations ranging from -.15 to .46. As expected, job search behavior was significantly and positively related to employment success, although the size of the relationships was consistently smaller than those obtained for job search. Moderator analyses showed significant differences in the size of variable relationships for type of job search measure (effort vs. intensity) and sample type (job loser vs. employed job seeker vs. new entrant).

Ackerman, P. L., & Cianciolo, A. T. (2000). Cognitive, perceptual speed, and psychomotor determinants of individual differences during skill acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 6, 259-290. <<BACK TO LIST
The authors describe a series of experiments that explore 3 major ability determinants of individual differences in skill acquisition in the context of prior theory (e.g., P. L. Ackerman, 1988) and subsequent empirical and theoretical research. Experiment 1 assessed the predictability of individual differences in asymptotic skill levels on the Kanfer-Ackerman Air Traffic Controller (ATC) task. Experiment 2 provided an exploration of the construct space underlying perceptual-speed abilities. Experiment 3 concerned an evaluation of theoretical predictions for individual differences in performance over skill development in a complex air traffic control simulation task (TRACON) and the ATC task, with an extensive battery of general and perceptual-speed measures, along with a newly developed PC-based suite of psychomotor ability measures. Evidence addressing the predictability of individual differences in performance at early, intermediate, and asymptotic levels of practice is presented.

Venkatesh, V., Morris, M., & Ackerman, P. L. (2000). A longitudinal field investigation of gender differences in individual technology adoption decision making processes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 83, 33-60. <<BACK TO LIST Examined gender differences in the overlooked context of individual adoption and sustained usage of technology in the workplace using the theory of planned behavior. User reactions and technology usage behavior were studied over a 5-mo period among 355 workers being introduced to a new software technology application. When compared to women's decisions, the decisions of men were more strongly influenced by their attitude toward using the new technology. In contrast, women were more strongly influenced by subjective norm and perceived behavioral control. Sustained technology usage behavior was driven by early usage behavior, thus fortifying the lasting influence of gender-based early evaluations of the new technology. These findings were robust across income, organization position, education, and computer self-efficacy levels.

Heggestad, E., & Kanfer, R. (In Press). Individual differences in trait motivation: Development of the Motivational Trait Questionnaire (MTQ). International Journal of Educational Research.<<BACK TO LIST
The development and initial evaluation of a measure of motivational traits, the Motivational Trait Questionnaire (MTQ), is described. Based upon theorizing by Kanfer and Heggestad (1997), development of the MTQ began by identifying and defining five motivational traits. Item pools were generated for each of the proposed traits, and initial facets were developed through a content-sorting procedure. Two studies were conducted to evaluate the MTQ at the item, facet, and scale levels. In Study 1, the facet scales were refined based on item-level. The factor structure of the MTQ facets was similar to that found in Study 1. An extension analysis from the three trait factors to extant measures of achievement, test and trait anxiety, and personality provided construct validity evidence for the MTQ scales. Results from these studies support the multidimensional structure of motivational traits proposed by Kanfer and Heggestad.

Ackerman, P. L. (2000). Domain-specific knowledge as the "dark matter" of adult intelligence: gf/gc, personality and interest correlates. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 55B (2), P69-P84. <<BACK TO LIST
An enduring controversy in intelligence theory and assessment, the argument that middle-aged adults are, on average, less intelligent than young adults, is addressed in this study. A sample of 228 educated adults between ages 21 and 62 years was given an array of tests that focused on a broad assessment of intelligence-as-knowledge, traditional estimates of fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc), personality, and interests. The results indicate that middle-aged adults are more knowledgeable in many domains, compared with your adults. A coherent pattern of ability, personality, and interest relations is found. The results are consistent with a developmental perspective of intelligence that includes both traditional ability and non-ability determinants of intelligence during adulthood. A reassessment of the nature of intelligence in adulthood is provided, in the context of lifelong learning and investment model, called PPIK, for intelligence-as-Process, Personality, Interests, and intelligence-as-Knowledge (Ackerman, 1996).

Ackerman, P. L. (2000). A reappraisal of the ability determinants of individual differences in skilled performance. Psychologische Beiträge, 42, 4-17.<<BACK TO LIST
The prediction of individual differences in skilled performance has been a source of substantial theory and empirical research over the past 100 years. Developments in the statistical evaluation of individual differences data, and progress in the investigation of a wide range of human abilities (such as general, perceptual speed, and psychomotor abilities) have contributed to a better understanding of the role of ability in the acquisition of skills. This article presents a reappraisal of the theoretical and empirical approaches to questions regarding the ability determinants of skilled performance, describes progress that has been made, and discusses enduring problems and future challenges.

Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (2000) Individual differences in work motivation: Further explorations of a trait framework. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 49 (3), 469-481.<<BACK TO LIST
Empirical evidence on the conceptual and construct validity of the motivational trait taxonomy proposed by Kanfer and Heggestad is presented. 228 adults completed a shortened form of the Motivational Trait Questionnaire (MTQ), along with a battery of personality and ability measures. Relationships of the MTQ with personality measures show evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for trait constructs of Personal Mastery, Competitive Excellence, and Motivation Related to Anxiety. In addition, MTQ scale scores were generally unrelated to composite measures of fluid and crystallized intelligence. Examination of age differences showed a pattern of developmental decline in the achievement trait complex, but not the anxiety complex.

Wanberg, C. R., Kanfer, R., & Banas, J. T. (2000) Predictors and outcomes of networking intensity among unemployed job seekers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 35(4), 491-503.<<BACK TO LIST
This study examined predictors and outcomes of networking intensity (i.e., individual actions directed toward contacting friends, acquaintances, and referrals to get information, leads, or advice on getting a job) during the job searches of a sample of unemployed individuals. The study used a Big Five framework, in which extraversion and conscientiousness were associated with both higher levels of networking intensity and higher use of other traditional job-search methods. Networking comfort (a procedure-specific constellation of evaluative beliefs depicting attitudes toward using networking as a job-search method) was positively related to networking intensity above and beyond the effects of personality. Networking intensity did not provide incremental prediction of unemployment insurance exhaustion., reemployment or reemployment speed, or job satisfaction when intensity of use of other job-search methods was considered.

Ackerman, P. L., & Cianciolo, A. T. (1999). Psychomotor abilities via touch-panel testing: Measurement innovations, construct, and criterion validity. Human Performance, 12, 231-273. <<BACK TO LIST
Assessment of psychomotor abilities for prediction of human performance is briefly reviewed. Reasons for the abandonment of psychomotor testing for section applications are described. We review innovation in touch-sensitive computer monitors as a methodology for relatively low-cost, highly flexible test development, validation, and application of standard psychomotor tests. The development and evaluation of 5 psychomotor test types are described including discrete response tests (choice-simple reaction time [RT], serial RT, and tapping) and continuous-response tests (maze tracing and mirror tracing). Two empirical studies of the new psychomotor tests are presented, with a broad array of perceptual speed and cognitive abilities providing evidence for construct validity. In addition, some of the psychomotor tests are validated against a real-time simulation criterion (the Kanfer-Ackerman Air Traffic Controller Task). We argue that these new innovations provide a means toward revisiting psychomotor testing to augment employee section batteries.

Ackerman, P. L. and Rolfhus, E. L. (1999). The locus of adult intelligence: Knowledge, abilities, and nonability traits. Psychology and Aging, 14(2), 314-330. <<BACK TO LIST
Some intelligence theorists (e.g., R. B. Cattell, 1943; D. O. Hebb, 1942) have suggested that knowledge is one aspect of human intelligence that is well preserved or increases during adult development. Very little is known about knowledge structures across different domains or about how individual differences in knowledge relate to other traits. Twenty academic and technology-oriented tests were administered to 135 middle-aged adults. In comparison with younger college students, the middle-aged adults knew more about nearly all of the various knowledge domains. Knowledge was partly predicted by general intelligence, by crystallized abilities, and by personality, interest, and self-concept. Implications of this work are discussed in the context of a developmental theory that focuses on the acquisition and maintenance of intelligence-as-knowledge, as well as the role of knowledge for predicting the vocational and avocational task performance of adults.

Rolfhus, E. L., & Ackerman, P. L. (1999). Assessing individual differences in knowledge: Knowledge structures and traits. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 511-526. <<BACK TO LIST
Twenty academic knowledge tests were developed to locate domain knowledge within a nomological network of traits. Spatial, numerical, and verbal aptitude measures and personality and interest measures were administered to 141 undergraduates. Domain knowledge factored along curricular lines; a general knowledge factor accounted for about half of knowledge variance. Domain knowledge exhibited positive relations with general intelligence (g), verbal abilities after g was removed, Opennes, Typical Intellectual engagement, and specific vocational interests. Spatial and numerical abilities were unrelated to knowledge beyond g. Extraversion related negatively to all knowledge domains. Results provide broad support for R.B. Cattell's (1971/1987) crystallized intelligence as something more than verbal abilities and specific support for P.L. Ackerman's (1996) intelligence-as-process, personality, interests, and intelligence-as-knowledge theory of adult intelligence.

Wanberg, C., Kanfer, R., & Rotondo, M. (1999). Unemployed individuals: Motives, job-search competencies, and job-search constraints as predictors of job seeking and reemployment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 897-910.<<BACK TO LIST
This study investigated 3 broad classes of individual-differences variables (job-search motives, competencies, and constraints) as predictors of job -search intensity among unemployed job seekers. Also assessed was the relationship between job-search intensity and reemployment success in a longitudinal context. Results show significant relationships between the predictors employment commitment, financial hardship, job-search self-efficacy, and motivation control and the outcome job-search intensity. Motivation control was highlighted as the only lagged predictor of job-search intensity over time for those who were continuously unemployed. Job-search intensity predicted Time 2 reemployment status for the sample as a whole, but not reemployment quality for those who found jobs over the study's duration.

Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D. (1997). Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 219-245. <<BACK TO LIST
The authors review the development of the modern paradigm for intelligence assessment and application and consider the differentiation between intelligence-as-maximal performance and intelligent-as-typical performance. They review theories of intelligence, personality, and interest as a means to establish potential overlap. Consideration of intelligence-as-typical performance provides a basis for evaluation of intelligence - personality and intelligence - interest relations. Evaluation of relations among personality constructs, vocational interests, and intellectual abilities provides evidence for communality across the domains of personality of J. L. Holland's (1959) model of vocational interests. The authors provide an extensive meta-analysis of personality - intellectual ability correlations, and a review of interests - intellectual ability associations. They identify 4 trait complexes: social, clerical/conventional, science/math, and intellectual/cultural.

Ackerman, P. L. (1997). Personality, self-concept, interests, and intelligence: Which construct doesn't fit? Journal of Personality, 65(2), 171-204. <<BACK TO LIST
Evaluation of overlap among correlational construct families provides a basis for cross-fertilization in each of the four separate individual-differences domains. This article provides some new insights on Thorndike's claim that superiority in one trait implies superiority in other traits. Definitions and methodological differences among correlational domains of inquiry are reviewed from modern investigations of personality, self-concept, interests, and intelligence. Sources of overlap between personality and other trait families are discussed and four trait complexes are reviewed: social, clerical/conventional, science/math, and intellectual/cultural. Implications of the trait-complex approach and challenges to integrative research approaches to applied problems are presented.

Ackerman, P. L. (1996). A theory of adult intellectual development: process, personality, interests, and knowledge. Intelligence, 22, 229-259. <<BACK TO LIST
The development of adult intelligence assessment early in this century as an upward extension of the Binet-Simon approach to child intelligence assessment is briefly reviewed. Problems with the use of IQ measures for adults are described, along with a discussion of related conceptualizations of adult intellectual performance. Prior intelligence theories that considered adult intelligence (Cattell, 1943, 1971/1987; Hebb, 1941, 1942, 1949; Vernon, 1950) are reviewed. Based on extensions of prior theory and new analyses of personality-ability and interest-ability relations, a developmental theory of adult intelligence is proposed, called PPIK. The PPIK theory of adult intellectual development integrates intelligence-as-process, personality, interests, and intelligence-as-knowledge. Data from the study of knowledge structures are examined in the context of the theory, and in relation to measures of content abilities (spatial and verbal abilities). New directions for the future of research on adult intellect are discussed in light of an approach that integrates personality, interests, process, and knowledge.

Goska, R. E., & Ackerman, P. L. (1996). An aptitude-treatment interaction approach to transfer within training. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 249-259.<<BACK TO LIST
The issues of skill specificity and transfer of training were examined from an aptitude-treatment interaction approach. The current investigations extended A.M. Sullivan's (1964) approach by using a procedural transfer task and training conditions that differed in the amount of training task practiced and the degree of training task similarity to the transfer task. Tow experiments were conducted with 232 college students. Experiment 1 examined the effects of a length-of -training manipulation on reasoning ability and transfer task performance relationships, and on the amount of transfer. Experiment 2 evaluated the effects of 2 training tasks that differed in terms of similarity to the transfer task on ability-performance relationships and the amount of transfer. Results suggest that Sullivan's approach partially generalizes to the acquisition of procedural knowledge.

Kanfer, R., Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D. (1996). Motivational skills & self-regulation for learning: A trait perspective. Learning and Individual Differences, 8, 185-209. <<BACK TO LIST
We report a series of investigations that focus on the nature of motivational skills and self-regulation for learning as traits, in contrast to consideration of self-regulation as resulting from particular interventions. In this context, we consider how self-report measures of motivational and self-regulation skills relate to other traits, such as ability, personality, interests, academic self-concept, self-ratings of abilities. In addition, we discuss how such trait measures are associated with task-specific self efficacy across tasks of varying complexity-from simple and information processing to complex air traffic controller tasks. Self-regulatory and motivational skills show substantial overlap with other trait measures, as do measures of learning strategies. Motivational and domain-specific self-concepts, along with trait anxiety, appear to be strongly related to task-specific self-efficacy.

Murtha, T. C., Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (1996). Towards an interactionist taxonomy of personality and situations: An integrative situational-dispositional representation of personality traits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 193-207. <<BACK TO LIST
This article has 2 goals: first, to present and test a hierarchical representation of personality that jointly incorporates both situational and personality (e.g., Big Five) factors into a trait conception, and second, to explicate the dimensions along which situations differ in their effect on responses, providing the conceptual and empirical groundwork for the development of a joint taxonomy of traits and situations. A study of the effects of situational differences on trait self-reports indicated that conscientiousness and agreeableness can be represented hierarchically, with lower levels jointly constrained by both personality content and situational breadth. This representation establishes a methodological framework allowing for the explanation of the ways that situations interact with personality to affect responses. Implications of this representation for personality theory and prediction to and from personality inventories are discussed.

Rolfhus, E. L., & Ackerman, P. L. (1996). Self-report knowledge: At the crossroads of ability, interest, and personality. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 174-188. <<BACK TO LIST
The authors describe an approach to adult intellect on the basis of content, unlike the traditional approach, which is mostly based on process. Thirty-two academic knowledge scales were rated by 202 college students, who also completed ability, vocational interest, and personality scales. Analyses of knowledge clusters and individual scales were used to evaluate commonality across ability constructs (verbal and spatial ability), vocational interests (realistic, investigative, and artistic), and personality (typical intellectual engagement and openness). The results support knowledge differentiation across fluid and crystallized abilities, show a pattern of positive correlations of arts and humanities knowledge with typical intellectual engagement and openness, and show correlations between math and physical sciences knowledge and realistic and investigative interests. Implications for the study of adult intelligence are discussed.

Schneider, R. J., Ackerman, P. L., & Kanfer, R. (1996). To "act wisely in human relations:" Exploring the dimensions of social competence. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 469-481. <<BACK TO LIST
An individual-differences approach to social competence is presented. People generated a large number of operational indicators of social competence. The dimensions that underlie those indicators were then determined. Seven interpretable dimensions of social competence were identified, each with a distinct pattern of correlations with personality and cognitive ability variables. Major personality dimensions are closely related to social competence, whereas cognitive ability (as operationalized by academic performance indicators) is less related to social competence. A profile approach to social competence is proposed because (a) social competence is a compound trait, all of whose dimensions do not covary, and (b) some social competence dimensions may be curvilinear such that, after an ideal point has been reached, higher standing on the dimension may hinder rather than enhance socially competent performance. Copyright (c) 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Ackerman, P. L., Kanfer, R., & Goff, M. (1995). Cognitive and noncognitive determinants and consequences of complex skill acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 1, 270-304. <<BACK TO LIST
Integration of multiple perspectives on the determinants of individual differences in skill acquisition is provided by examination of a wide array of predictors: ability (spatial, verbal, mathematical, and perceptual speed), personality (neuroticism, extroversion, openness, conscientiousness, and agreeableness), vocational interests (realistic and investigative), self-estimates of ability, self-concept, motivational skills, and task-specific self-efficacy. Ninety-three trainees were studied over the course of 15 hr (across 2 weeks) of skill acquisition practice on a complex, air traffic controller simulation task (Terminal Radar Approach Controller; TRACON; Wesson International; Austin, TX). Across task practice, measures of self-efficacy, and negative and positive motivational thought occurrence were collected to examine prediction of later performance and communality with pretask measures. Results demonstrate independent and interactive influences of ability tests and self-report measures in predicting training task performance. Implications for the selection process are discusses in terms of communalities observed in the predictor space.

Ackerman, P. L., & Woltz, D.J. (1994). Determinants of learning and performance in an associative memory/substitution task: Task constraints, individual differences, and volition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 487-515.<<BACK TO LIST
The way that cognitive abilities, learning task characteristics, and motivational and volitional processes combine to explain individual differences in performance and learning was investigated. A substitution task was studied over practice, and it was discovered that students used strategy in which students persisted in scanning items. Five experiments investigated strategy differences and the ability and motivational correlates of task performance. First, ability correlates of performance and strategy use were demonstrated. Next, reducing task difficulty increased use of the learning strategy. With periodic memory tests, effective reliance on the learning strategy was increased, and task performance correlations with reasoning ability were lowered. Finally, a combination of self-focus and goal-setting interventions increased both general performance levels and use of the learning strategy. Results are discussed in terms of the goal of developing a more comprehensive understanding of learner differences.

Ackerman, P. L., & Goff, M. (1994) Typical intellectual engagement and personality: Reply to Rocklin (1994). Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 150-153.<<BACK TO LIST
T. Rocklin (1994) examined the relations between our (M. Goff & P.L. Ackerman, 1992) measure of Typical Intellectual Engagement (TIE) and a personality test measure of Openness. We examine Rocklin's arguments in the context of three themes: philosophical issues, TIE and Openness from a facet perspective, and the bandwidth-fidelity dilemma. Although Rocklin raised important issues about these constructs, we demonstrate that measures of TIE and Openness, although significantly related, are theoretically and empirically distinguishable.

Kanfer, R., Ackerman, P. L., Murtha, T. C., Dugdale, B., & Nelson, L. (1994). Goal Setting, Conditions of practice, and task performance: A resource allocation perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 826-835.<<BACK TO LIST
Hypotheses regarding the influence of goal assignments on performance of a novel, complex task under varying conditions of practice were derived from a cognitive resource allocation model. Goals and type of practice interacted in their effects on two key performance measures. In the massed-practice conditions, trainees assigned specific, difficult goals tended to perform poorer than trainees in the control (do your best goal) condition. In the spaced-practice conditions, goal trainees performed marginally better than control trainees. Self-report measures of goal commitment, and on-task, off-task, and affective thoughts during breaks and task performance provide additional evidence for the independent and interactive effects of goals and practice conditions on motivation and performance. Results provide further support for the resource allocation framework. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Leon, G. R., Kanfer, R., Hoffman, R. G., & Dupre, L. (1994). Group processes and task effectiveness in a Soviet-American expedition team. Environment and Behavior, 26(2), 149-165.<<BACK TO LIST
A 12-person Soviet-American Bering Bridge expedition team was studied over the 61 days of their trek by dogsled and cross-country ski from the Chukotka region of Siberia, across the Bering Straits, to Alaska. The group was instructed to complete a daily effectiveness measure each evening that assessed the perception of the emotional climate of the group and relationships to task effectiveness. Members participated in a structured interview at the end of the expedition. Perceived fairness of daily task assignments was negatively related to number of disagreements and how friendly other team members were. The planned stops in villages along the way to promote international harmony enhanced the international objectives of the expedition but had a negative impact on group cohesiveness. The ability of the group to meet its objectives despite frequent episodes promoting a negative emotional climate was discussed.

Ackerman, P. L., & Kanfer, R. (1993). Integrating laboratory and field study for improving selection: Development of a battery for predicting air traffic controller success. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 413-432. <<BACK TO LIST
An example of combining laboratory-and field-based study to develop a selection battery for field implementation s described. The procedure provides advantages in comparison with sole use of construct validity data, and fewer field demands for cross-validation. Two experiments were conducted that converge on development of a test battery for selection of air traffic controllers (ATCs). The laboratory study (N=112) used an ATC simulator (terminal radar approach control, or TRACON) for initial development and evaluation of the selection battery. The field study of 206 Federal Aviation Administration ATC trainees provided cross-validation data as a precursor to implementation of the battery. Implications for developing ability-based and self efficacy-based selection measures for complex job performance are discussed, as are general issues for new election research and application.

Ackerman, P. L. (1992). Predicting individual differences in complex skill acquisition: Dynamics of ability determinants. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 598-614.<<BACK TO LIST
Substantial controversy exists about ability determinants of individual differences in performance during and subsequent to skill acquisition. This investigation addresses the controversy. An information-processing examination of ability-performance relations during complex task acquisition is described. Included are ability testing (including general, reasoning, spatial, perceptual speed, and perceptual/psychomotor abilities) and skill acquisition over practice on the terminal radar approach controller simulation. Results validate and extend Ackerman's (1988) theory of cognitive ability determinants of individual differences in skill acquisition. Benefits of ability component and task component analyses over global analyses of ability-skill relations are demonstrated. Implications are discussed for selection instruments to predict air traffic controller success and for other tasks with inconsistent information-processing demands.

Goff, M., & Ackerman, P. L. (1992). Personality-intelligence relations: Assessing typical intellectual engagement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 537-552.<<BACK TO LIST
Relations between personality and intelligence were investigated in the context of the distinction between intelligence as typical engagement and intelligence as maximal engagement. The traditional approach to investigating the association between intelligence as maximal performance and personality was reviewed, and suggestions were made, including the suggestion that intelligence as typical engagement and related to typical intellectual performance were operationalized. Relations found were modest, yet several personality scales differentially related to fluid and crystallized classes of intelligence. Relations between the personality constructs surrounding typical intellectual engagement and the broad personality domain are investigated.

Johnson, D. J., & Kanfer, R. (1992). Goal-performance relations: The effects of initial task complexity and task practice. Motivation and Emotion, 16, 117-141.<<BACK TO LIST
The current study was conducted to examine the effects of task complexity and task practice (trials) on the goal-performance relationship. Specific, difficult goal assignments were predicted to enhance performance on complex task only in later task practice. On a simpler task, specific, difficult goal assignments were predicted to enhance performance in early task practice and to disrupt performance in later task practice. The results indicated that goals exerted the predicted effects in the simple task version but had no effect in the complex task version. Possible relationships between amount of task practice and stages of skill acquisition are discussed for tasks differing in complexity. The results are also discussed in terms of cognitive resource demands and self-regulatory processes. Implications for the effectiveness of goals in relation to task complexity and task trials are also discussed.

Leon, G., Kanfer, R., Hoffman, R. G., & Dupre, L. (1991). Interrelationships of personality, coping, and group processes in a Soviet-American expedition team. Journal of Research in Personality, 25, 357-371.<<BACK TO LIST
The relationship between personality characteristics, daily stressors, and means of coping were studied in a 12-person Soviet-American expedition team consisting of Caucasian and Eskimo men and women. The members scored relatively high on scales measuring well-being, achievement orientation, and traditionalism and scored relatively low on stress reactivity. The use of social support as a coping mechanism was positively related to high stress reactivity, control, and negative emotionality and negatively related to well-being. Negative emotionality was related to ratings of daily intrapersonal stressors. Discussion centered on the function of social support in an extreme, task-focused situation and the relationship of social support coping in this particular type of situation to maladaptive personality characteristics.

Ackerman, P. L. (1990). A correlational analysis of skill specificity: Learning, abilities, and individual differences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 883-901.<<BACK TO LIST
Skill specificity, the notion that task performance is based on unique underlying information-processing components at skilled levels of performance, is examined from the perspective of the ability determinants of individual differences in task performance during skill acquisition. The current investigation uses a dynamic ability-skill theoretical perspective to evaluate how individual differences in procedural learning for a complex criterion task relate to learning of procedures for other more basic tasks such as choice and simple reaction time. An experiment with 86 college students was performed using a simulated Air Traffic Controller (ATC) task for assessment of procedural learning, along with practice on several perceptual speed measures and assessment of reference abilities. When subjects are allowed to practice tests of perceptual speed and psychomotor ability, some measures increase in their power to predict skilled performance on the complex ATC criterion task, a direct disconfirmation of the skill-specificity thesis. Discussion is devoted to the use of individual-differences approaches to address general transfer and skill specificity issues.

Kanfer, R. (1990). Motivation and Individual Differences in Learning: An Integration of Developmental, Differential, and Cognitive Perspectives. Learning and Individual Differences, 2, 221-239.<<BACK TO LIST
Cognitively-based motivational processes are examined from achievement and goal setting perspective to provide a common basis for: (1) resolution of discontinuities in the empirical literature; (2) analysis of the role of motivational dispositions; and (3) consideration of motivation-cognitive processing interactions during complex skill acquisition. Goal orientation and goal attributes are examined with respect to their detrimental and beneficial influence on performance through effects on goal choice and self-regulatory activities. Theoretically-related differential approaches to motivational processing are found to differ in their utility for understanding motivation among children and adults. The effects of motivational processing on cognitive processes during complex skill acquisition are considered for the purpose of identifying when, how, and for whom specific motivational interventions might be most effective.

Lind, E. A., Kanfer, R., & Earley, P. C. (1990). Voice, control, and procedural justice: Instrumental and noninstrumental concerns in fairness judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 952-959.<<BACK TO LIST
One hundred seventy-nine undergraduate Ss took part in a study of the effects of instrumental and noninstrumental participation on distributive and procedural fairness judgments. In a goal-setting procedure, Ss were allowed voice before the goal was set, after the goal was set, or not at all. Ss received information relevant to the task, irrelevant information, or no information. Both pre- and postdecision voice led to higher fairness judgments than non voice, with predecision voice leading to higher fairness judgments than postdecision voice. Relevant information also increased perceived fairness. Mediation analyses showed that perceptions of control account for some, but not all, of the voice-based enhancement of procedural justice. The results show that both instrumental and noninstrumental concerns are involved in voice effects.

Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Within-task intercorrelations of skilled performance: Implications for predicting individual differences? Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 360-364.<<BACK TO LIST
Recent discussion by Henry and Hulin (1987) about the implications of stability and change in skilled performance are questioned on several counts. First, the presentation reflects an inadequate review of previous data pertaining to the influences of skill acquisition on ability-performance covariance. Furthermore, the authors made untenable assumptions that equate ability with job sample measures. Their conclusions about universal decline in predictive validity coefficients are inconsistent with both theory and data in the literature. As a result, misleading generalizations were made to other issues in the prediction of individual differences. This article notes deviations from historical literature and outlines the problems of this approach. Discussion of theoretical frameworks for predicting individual differences in skill acquisition and skilled performance is also presented, along with an overview of data in support of these frameworks. The conclusions reached differ from those of Henry and Hulin, lead to different interpretations of past research and practice, and propose very different directions for future research.

Ackerman, L. and Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Generational differences and parent-child resemblance in achievement motives and locus of control: A cross-sectional analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 10(12), 1237-1242. <<BACK TO LIST
Recently, there has been increased interest in the role of stable individual differences in so-called personal constructs (e.g. motivation, affect) as determinants of work performance. This study examines: (1) parent-child resemblance in achievement motivation and locus of control, and (2) generational differences in these variables using the WOFO and I-E scales. Results offer convincing evidence for the lack of direct relationship between parent achievement motivation and locus of control on child ratings for these scales. The results are discussed in light of the importance of discovering the antecedents of achievement motivation and locus of control dispositions, especially as they affect behavior in the workplace.

Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Motivation and cognitive abilities: An integrative/aptitude-treatment interaction approach to skill acquisition. Journal of Applied Psychology - Monograph, 74, 657-690.<<BACK TO LIST
Two central constructs of applied psychology, motivation and cognitive ability, were integrated within an information-processing framework. This theoretical framework simultaneously considers individual differences in cognitive abilities, self-regulatory processes of motivation, and information-processing demands. Evidence for the framework is provided in the context of skill acquisition, in which information-processing and ability demands change as a f function of practice, training paradigm, and timing of goal setting. Three field-based lab experiments were conducted with 1,010 U.S. Air Forces trainees. In Experiment 1 the basic ability-performance parameters of the air traffic controller task and goal-setting effects early in practice were evaluated. In Experiment 2 goal setting later in practice was examined. In Experiment 3 the simultaneous effects of training content, goal setting, and ability-performance interactions were investigated. Results support the theoretical framework and have implications for notions of ability-motivation interactions and design of training and motivation programs.

Paese, P. W., Lind, E. A., & Kanfer, R. (1989). Procedural fairness and work group responses to performance evaluation systems. Social Justice Research, 2, 193-205.<<BACK TO LIST
In a variety of settings, procedures that permit predecision input by those affected by the decision in question have been found to have positive effects on fairness judgments, independent of the favorability of the decision. Two major models of the psychology of procedural justice make contrary predictions about whether repeated negative outcomes attenuate such input effects. If such attenuation occurs, it would lessen the applicability of procedural justice findings to some real-world settings, such as organizations, where procedures often provide repeated negative outcomes. The present laboratory investigation examined the procedural and distributive fairness justments produced by high- and low-input performance evaluation procedures under conditions of repeated negative outcomes. Thirty-five three-person groups of male undergraduates participated in a three-round competition. Groups either were or were not allowed to specify the relative weights to be given to two criteria used in evaluating their performance. All groups received negative outcomes on each of the three rounds. A second experimental factor varied whether or not the group learned after losing the second round that it could not possibly win the third and final round of the competition. Measures of procedural and distributive fairness showed that the high-input procedure led to judgments of greater procedural and distributive fairness across all three rounds. The input-based enhancement of fairness occurred regardless of whether reward was possible. The implications of these findings for theories of procedural justice and for applications of procedural justice to organizational settings are discussed.

Ackerman, P. L. (1988). Determinants of individual differences during skill acquisition: Cognitive abilities and information processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117, 288-318.<<BACK TO LIST
An integrative theory that links general models of skill acquisition with ability determinants of individual differences in performance is presented. Three major patterns of individual differences during skill acquisition are considered: changes in between-subjects variability, the simplex pattern of trial intercorrelations, and changing ability-performance correlations with practice. In addition to a review of previous theory and data, eight experimental manipulations are used to evaluate the cognitive ability demands associated with different levels of information-processing complexity and consistency. Subjects practiced category word search, spatial figure, and choice reaction time tasks over several hundred trials of task practice. An air traffic controller simulation was used to show generalization to a complex task. Examinations of practice-related between-subjects variance changes and ability-performance correlations are used to demonstrate that an equivalence exists between three broad phases of skill acquisition and three cognitive-intellectual determinants of individual differences.

Ahrens, A. H., Zeiss, A. M., & Kanfer, R. (1988). Dysphoric deficits in interpersonal standards, self-efficacy, and social comparison. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 12(1), 53-67.<<BACK TO LIST
This study examined the role of personal standards, self-efficacy expectations, and social comparison in depression. Nondepressed and dysphoric subjects estimated their own interpersonal standards and efficacy, as well as the standards and efficacy of their peers. Contrary to common theory, dysphoric subjects set lower – not higher – goals than did nondepressed subjects. As expected, nondepressed subjects made more favorable social comparisons than did dysphoric subjects. Nondepressed subjects made more positive judgments for themselves than for their peers, whereas dysphoric subjects made similar judgments for self and other. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for the role of goals and social comparison processes in depression. In particular, it is suggested that, in response to a gap between standards and performance expectations, one might raise expectations, lower standards, or maintain both standards and expectations. The latter two are likely to be associated with depression. Not only are evaluations made in absolute terms, but they are also made by social comparison, especially when evaluation concerns one’s goals. This study suggests that dysphoric people no longer judge that they are superior to their peers, which might hinder them in mobilizing their efforts.

Fisk, A. D., and Ackerman, P. L. (1988). Effects of type of responding on memory/visual search: Responding just “yes” or just “no” can lead to inflexible performance. Perception & Psychophysics, 43(4), 373-379.<<BACK TO LIST
Interactions of stimulus consistency and type of responding were examined during perceptual learning. Subjects performed hybrid memory-visual search tasks over extended consistent and varied mapping practice. Response conditions required subjects to respond to both the presence and absence of a target, only when a target was present or only when a target was not present. After training, the subjects were transferred to a different response condition. The results indicate that: (1) performance on search tasks with stimuli that are variably mapped show no qualitative changes attributable to manipulation of response format; (2) improvement due to consistent mapping (CM) practice is attenuated in the no-only response condition; (3) yes-only CM training attenuates the subjects’ ability to transfer to no-only responding; and (4) yes/no CM training leads to the greatest improvement and transfer when compared with other responding conditions. The practice and transfer data support and extend previous research investigation effects of response set in memory/visual search and help to delineate factors that facilitate or inhibit reduction of load effects in memory and visual search.

Kanfer, R., Crosby, J. V., & Brandt, D. M. (1988). Investigating behavioral antecedents of turnover at three job tenure levels. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 331-335.<<BACK TO LIST
A field study was conducted to investigate differences between hourly assembly operators who stayed and hourly assembly operators who voluntarily quit their jobs. A total of 80 stayers and 121 leavers were identified from personnel records and were classified into one of three job tenure groups, 2-5 months, 6-12 months, and more than 12 months. Job performance, attendance measures, and biographical variables were used to predict turnover for each job tenure group. Results indicated poorer performance by leavers with 6-12 months tenure compared with stayers. No differences in performance or attendance were obtained between stayers and leavers with between 2-5 months and those with more than 12-months job tenure. Leavers after 6 and before 12 months demonstrated more absenteeism compared with stayers. Implications for the role of absenteeism and constraints on the performance-retention relation are discussed.

Ackerman, P. L. (1987). Individual differences in skill learning: An integration of psychometric and information processing perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 3-27.<<BACK TO LIST
In this article, I reexamine the nature of individual differences in novel and practiced performance on skill learning tasks from an information processing framework that incorporates concepts derived from automatic and controlled information processing and attentional resources perspectives. I also use developments in quantitative analysis procedures to approach previous data in a single, unbiased framework for evaluation. Two major sources of data and discussion are reanalyzed and critically evaluated. One source concerns the changes in interindividual between-subjects variability with task practice. The other main source of data and theory pertains to associations between intellectual abilities and task performance during skill acquisition. Early studies of practice and variability yielded mixed results regarding the convergence or divergence of individual differences with practice. Other studies regarding intelligence and skill learning indicated small or trivial correlations between individual differences in intelligence and "gain" scores. More recent studies indicated small correlations between performance measures on skill learning tasks and standard intellectual and cognitive ability measures, as well as increasing amounts of task-specific variance over learning trials. On the basis of this reanalysis and reexamination, these data confirm the proposition that individuals converge on performance as tasks become less dependent on attentional resources with practice. Further, it is determined that when appropriate methodological techniques are used and crucial task characteristics are taken into account, intellectual abilities play a substantial part in determining individual differences in skill learning.

Kanfer, R. (1987). Task-specific motivation: An integrative approach to issues of measurement, mechanisms, processes, and determinants. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 5(2), 237-264.<<BACK TO LIST
The present paper identifies and discusses contemporary problems in the self-regulation, expectancy-value, and goal-setting conceptualizations of task-specific motivation. Three issues are examined in detail: (1) the construct validity of performance measures as a criterion of motivation on cognitive tasks; (2) the influence of objective task characteristics on both the measurement of motivation and the motivation process itself; and (3) the measurement, meaning, and function of the perceived effort-performance relation and probabilistic measures of performance expectations. Within each issue, theoretical advances in information processing and decision making are integrated with previous empirical findings pertaining to performance motivation. Examination of these issues suggests that further emphasis be placed on form analyses of three cognitive mechanisms and on validating a conceptual framework concerning the influence of situational and individual-difference factors on specific cognitive components. A heuristic model, extending previous conceptualizations on the basis of new knowledge in the cognitive domain, is presented as a guide for further integrative research on task-specific motivation.

Kanfer, R., Sawyer, J., Earley, P. C., & Lind, E. A. (1987). Fairness and participation in evaluation procedures: Effects on task attitudes and performance. Social Justice Research, 1(2), 235-249.<<BACK TO LIST
A laboratory study was conducted to examine the role of two components of participatory work evaluation procedures on fairness attitudes and work performance. “Opportunity for influential opinion expression” and “knowledge of evaluation criteria” were manipulated in a business simulation exercise. Thirty-eight male and 49 female undergraduates worked under a task evaluation procedure that either did or did not allow them to express their opinions to the evaluator. In addition, subjects either were or were not provided with specific information about the criteria to be used in making the performance evaluation, and they received either a favorable or an unfavorable outcome. Questionnaire responses indicated that influential opinion expression enhanced perceptions of procedural and distributive fairness independently of the outcome of the evaluation. Both knowledge of evaluation criteria and perceptions of evaluation fairness correlated with subsequent task performance. The implications of these findings are discussed with respect to understanding the influence of procedural justice on attitudes and task behavior in organizational settings.

Ackerman, P. L. (1986). Individual differences in information processing: An investigation of intellectual abilities and task performance during practice. Intelligence, 10, 101-139.<<BACK TO LIST
A conceptual theory for predicting the relations between intellectual abilities and performance during task practice is proposed and evaluated. This macro-theory integrates modern hierarchical theories of intellectual abilities with information-processing theories of automatic and controlled processing (Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977) and performance-resource functions (Norman & Bobrow, 1975). An empirical evaluation of the theory is provided from an experiment with high school and college students. Subjects practiced for several hours on verbal and spatial memory tasks with consistent and varied information-processing manipulations. Derived correlations between ability factors and task performance measures indicate support for the theory and support for linkage of the concepts of intellectual abilities and attentional resources.

Drasgow, F., and Kanfer, R. (1985). Equivalence of psychological measurement in heterogeneous populations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(4), 662-680.<<BACK TO LIST
A method for investigating measurement equivalence across subpopulations is developed and applied to an instrument frequently used to assess job satisfaction (the Job Descriptive Index; JDI). The method is based on Jöreskog’s simultaneous factor analysis in several populations. Several adaptations are necessary to overcome problems with violations of assumptions that occur with rating scale data. Two studies were conducted to evaluate the measurement equivalence of the JDI across different subpopulations. Investigation of five relatively homogeneous subpopulations within one industry revealed invariant measurement properties for the JDI. In the second study, measurement equivalence of the JDI was examined across health care, retailing, and military samples. Generally small violations of measurement equivalence were found. The results in both studies indicate that mean differences in JDI scores (i.e., differences in job satisfaction across groups) are due to group differences rather than lack of measurement equivalence.

Earley, P. C., and Kanfer, R. (1985). The influence of component participation and role models on goal acceptance, goal satisfaction, and performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 36, 378-390.<<BACK TO LIST
The present investigation examined the effects of different types of participation (choice) and role models in goal setting on goal acceptance, goal satisfaction, and performance. It was hypothesized that choice in setting a goal and a strategy to achieve the goal would positively benefit goal acceptance, performance, and goal satisfaction. In addition, it was predicted that a role model would differentially influence an individual’s goal acceptance, goal satisfaction, and performance. One hundred twenty male college students working on a class scheduling task were exposed to either a high- or low-performing role model and given various amounts of choice in the goal-setting process. The results of two-way analyses of variance demonstrated that goal acceptance, goal satisfaction, and performance were highest for individuals given choice over their goal and their strategy to achieve the goal. In addition, the results demonstrated that an individual exposed to a high-performing role model outperformed and had higher goal acceptance and satisfaction than an individual exposed to a low-performing model. The results are discussed as a means for clarifying the effects of different types of choice in the goal-setting process and the importance of role-provided information in influencing an individual’s performance.

Kanfer, R., and Hulin, C. L. (1985). Individual differences in successful job searches following lay-off. Personnel Psychology, 38, 835-848.<<BACK TO LIST
A field study was conducted to examine attitudinal and behavioral variables associated with reemployment following job termination. Thirty-five employees were surveyed within two days following termination. Of those surveyed, 23 were contacted one month later regarding employment status. Analyses revealed that reemployed persons were significantly more confident of job search skills and had engaged in a greater number of search behaviors than had individuals who had remained unemployed. No significant differences between the reemployed and still unemployed groups were obtained in affective responses to termination or nonwork-related variables. The findings suggest that reemployment success is related to individual differences in expectations of successful job search. Implications for future research on job loss and reemployment are discussed.

Ackerman, P. L., Schneider, W., & Wickens, C. D. (1984). Deciding the existence of a time-sharing ability: A combined theoretical and methodological approach. Human Factors, 26, 71-82.<<BACK TO LIST
Experimental and statistical methods for examining individual differences in dual-task performance and time-sharing ability are reviewed and criticized. Previous data and analysis procedures are generally inadequate to evaluate a time-sharing ability. Errors resulting from unsophisticated use of correlational and factor analytic procedures are described. Four previous studies that concern time-sharing are considered in detail. The nature of task selection, scoring methods, and control of practice and reliability issues are discussed. Based on a reanalysis of available data, a time-sharing ability is not rejected. Simulation, incorporation of theory in planning models, and crucial tests of the hypotheses are proposed as methods for assessing the time-sharing ability.

Kanfer, R., Sawyer, J., Earley, P. C., & Lind, E. A. (1984). Information exchange in evaluation procedures: The effects of input and knowledge on performance and attitudes. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, No. ED 246 363.<<BACK TO LIST
Participation in organizational decisions is thought to have a number of positive effects on performance and worker attitudes, but it is not clear which elements of participation are responsible for these positive effects. The effects of two elements of participation, upward information input by the worker and the provision of downward knowledge by a supervisor, were examined in a laboratory setting. Thirty-eight male and 49 female undergraduates worked on a task under a performance evaluation procedure that either did or did not allow them to offer information about their performance to an evaluator. A supervisor either did or did not offer information about criteria for evaluation of performance. The subject received either a positive or negative outcome from the evaluation procedure. Upward information flow and downward information flow interacted in their effect on task performance, with highest performance occurring under high upward and high downward information exchange. Performance on a subsequent task increased following downward information on the first task. Upward information flow produced higher ratings of procedural fairness, satisfaction with outcomes, and satisfaction with the supervisor. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for participatory effects and their implications for the design of organizational performance appraisal procedures.

Kanfer, R. and Zeiss, A. M. (1983). Depression , interpersonal standard setting, and judgments of self-efficacy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 92(3), 319-329.<<BACK TO LIST
The present study investigated the relationship between standard setting and judgments of self-efficacy in the domain of interpersonal functioning for depressed and nondepressed subjects. Consistent with a self-control model of depression, a large discrepancy between personal standards and judgments of personal efficacy for performance was postulated to be related to depression. Students who scored above 13 on two administrations of the Beck Depression Inventory composed the depressed group. Thirty-nine depressed and 39 nondepressed students rated their minimal standards for adequate interpersonal performance, its importance to them, and their judgments of self-efficacy for the same tasks. Depressed subjects showed a larger discrepancy between strength of interpersonal standards and strength of self-efficacy than did the normal subjects. Depressed subjects expressed a lower strength of self-efficacy than did nondepressed subjects, but they did not differ on their interpersonal standards. Importance and the strength for standards correlated positively for both depressed and normal subjects. The present findings are consistent with recent extensions of Lewinsohn’s model of depression, which suggest that disruptions in self-evaluation are related to lowered judgments of self-efficacy for depressed subjects.

Last Revised: July 2009


Kanfer, R., Ackerman, P. L., & Cudeck, R. (Eds.)(1989). Abilities, motivation, and methodology: The Minnesota Symposium on Learning and Individual Differences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.	Lord, R., Klimoski, R., & Kanfer, R. (Eds.) (2002). Emotions in the workplace: Understanding the structure and role of emotions in organizational behavior. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass.

Ackerman, P. L., Kyllonen, P.C., & Roberts, R.D. (Eds.) (1999). Learning and Individual Differences: Process, Trait, and Content Determinants. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.	Ackerman, P. L., Sternberg, R. J., & Glaser, R. (Eds.) (1989). Learning and individual differences: Advances in theory and research. New York: W. H. Freeman.

Kanfer, R., Chen, G., & Pritchard, R. (Eds.) (2008). Work Motivation: Past, Present, and Future. New York: Routledge Academic.

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